DOMAINS OF LEARNING

Besides the four basic levels of learning, educational psychologists have developed several additional levels.

These classifications consider what is to be learned. Is it knowledge only, a change in attitude, a physical skill, or a combination of knowledge and skill? One of the more useful categorizations of learning objectives includes three domains: cognitive domain (knowledge), affective domain (attitudes, beliefs, and values), and psychomotor domain (physical skills). Each of the domains has a hierarchy of educational objectives.

The listing of the hierarchy of objectives is often called taxonomy. Taxonomy of educational objectives is a systematic classification scheme for sorting learning outcomes into the three broad categories (cognitive, affective, and psychomotor) and ranking the desired outcomes in a developmental hierarchy from least complex to most complex.

COGNITIVE DOMAIN

The cognitive domain, described by Dr. Benjamin Bloom, is one of the best known educational domains.

It contains additional levels of knowledge and understanding and is commonly referred to as Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives.

E

ducational objectives in the cognitive domain refer to knowledge which

Figure 1-4. Dr. Bloom’s hierarchical taxonomy for the cognitive domain (knowledge) includes six educational objective levels.

might be gained as the result of attending a ground school, reading about aircraft systems, listening to a preflight briefing, reviewing meteorological reports, or taking part in computer-based training. The highest educational objective level in this domain may also be illustrated by learning to correctly evaluate a flight maneuver, repair an airplane engine, or review a training syllabus for depth and completeness of training.

AFFECTIVE DOMAIN

The affective domain may be the least understood, and in many ways, the most important of the learning domains. A similar system for specifying attitudinal objectives has been developed by D.R. Krathwohl.

Like the Bloom tax

onomy, Krathwohl’s hierarchy attempts to arrange these objectives in an order of difficulty.

Since the affective domain is concerned with a student’s attitudes, personal beliefs, and values, measuring educational objectives in this domain is not easy.

For example, how is a positive attitude toward safety evaluated? Observable safety-related behavior indicates a positive attitude, but this is not like a simple pass/fail test that can be

Figure 1-5. D. R. Krathwohl’s hierarchical taxonomy for the affective domain (attitudes, beliefs, and values) contains five educational objective levels.

used to e

Figure 1-5. D. R. Krathwohl’s hierarchical taxonomy for the affective domain (attitudes, beliefs, and values) contains five educational objective levels.

valuate cognitive educational objective levels. Although a number of techniques are available for evaluation of achievement in the affective domain, most rely on indirect inferences.

Figure 1-5. D. R. Krathwohl’s hierarchical taxonomy for the affective domain (attitudes, beliefs, and values) contains five educational objective levels.

PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN

There are several taxonomies which deal with the psychomotor domain (physical skills), but none are as popularly recognized as the Bloom and Krathwohl taxonomies. However, the taxonomy developed by E.J.

S

impson also is generally acceptable. Psychomotor or physical skills always have been important in science. Typical activities involving these skills include learning to fly a precision instrument approach procedure, programming a GPS receiver, or using sophisticated maintenance equipment. As physical tasks and equipment become more complex, the requirement for integration of cognitive and physical skills increases.

Figure1. E.J. Simpson’s hierarchical taxonomy for the psychomotor domain (physical skills) consists of seven educational objective levels..

Instructional Material (A.V Aids)

Instructional aids should not be confused with training media. Educators generally describe training media as any physical means that communicates an instructional message to students. For example, the science teacher’s voice, printed text, video cassettes, interactive computer programs, part-task trainers, flight training devices or flight simulators, and numerous other types of training devices are considered training media.

Instructional aids, on the other hand, are devices that assist an science teacher in the teaching-learning process.

Instructional aids are not self-supporting; they are supplementary training devices. The key factor is that instructional aids support, supplement, or reinforce.

In general, the coverage of instructional aids in the first part of this chapter applies to a classroom setting with one science teacher and several students. The discussion about types of instructional aids begins with the most basic aids and progresses to the more complex and expensive aids. The last segment is about new training technologies which may apply to a typical classroom environment, as well as other training environments.

While science teachers may become involved in the selection and preparation of instructional aids, usually they are already in place. Science teachers simply need to learn how to effectively use them .

REASONS FOR USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS

In addition to helping students remember important information, instructional aids have other advantages.

When properly used, they help gain and hold the attention of students. Audio or visual aids can be very useful in supporting a topic, and the combination of both audio and visual stimuli is particularly effective since the two most important senses are involved. Science teachers should keep in mind that they often are salesmen of ideas, and many of the best sales techniques that attract the attention of potential clients are well worth considering. One caution—the instructional aid should keep student attention on the subject; it should not be a distracting gimmick.

Clearly, a major goal of all instruction is for the student to be able to retain as much knowledge of the subject as possible, especially the key points. Numerous studies have attempted to determine how well instructional aids serve this purpose. Indications from the studies vary greatly—from modest results, which show a 10 to

15 percent increase in retention, to more optimistic results in which retention is increased by as much as 80 percent.

Good instructional aids also can help solve certain language barrier problems. Consider the continued expansion of technical terminology in everyday usage. This, coupled with culturally diverse backgrounds of today’s students, makes it necessary for science teachers to be precise in their choice of terminology. Words or terms used in an instructional aid should be carefully selected to convey the same meaning for the student as they do for the science teacher. They should provide an accurate visual image and make learning easier for the student.

Another use for instructional aids is to clarify the relationships between material objects and concepts. When relationships are presented visually, they often are much easier to understand. For example, the subsystems within a physical unit are relatively easy to relate to each other through the use of schematics or diagrams. Symbols, graphs, and diagrams can also show relationships of location, size, time, frequency, and value. By symbolizing the factors involved, it is even possible to visualize abstract relationships.

Science teachers are frequently asked to teach more and more in a smaller time frame. Instructional aids can help them do this. For example, instead of using many words to describe a sound, object, or function, the science teacher plays a recording of the sound, shows a picture of the object, or presents a diagram of the function. Consequently, the student learns faster and more accurately, and the science teacher saves time in the process.

Use of Instructional Aids

Aids should be simple and compatible with the learning outcomes to be achieved. Obviously, an explanation of elaborate equipment may require detailed schematics or mockups, but less complex equipment may lend itself to only basic shapes or figures. Since aids are normally used in conjunction with a verbal presentation, words on the aid should be kept to a minimum.

In many cases, visual symbols and slogans can replace extended use of verbiage. The science teacher should

Instructional aids should appeal to the student and be based on sound principles of instructional design.

When practical, they should encourage student participation. They also should be meaningful to the student, lead to the desired behavioral or learning objectives, and provide appropriate reinforcement. Aids that involve learning a physical skill should guide students toward mastery of the skill or task specified in the lesson objective.

Instructional aids have no value in the learning process if they cannot be heard or seen. Recordings of sounds and speeches should be tested for correct volume and quality in the actual environment in which they will be used. Visual aids must be visible to the entire class. All lettering and illustrations must be large enough to be seen easily by the students farthest from the aids.

Colors, when used, should provide clear contrast and easily be visible. The usefulness of aids can be improved by proper sequencing to build on previous learning. Frequently, good organization and natural patterns of logic dictate the sequence. However, use of standardized materials, including a syllabus, is recommended.

Sequencing also can be enhanced simply by using overlays on transparencies, stripping techniques on charts and chalk or marker boards, and by imaginative use of magnetic boards. Sequencing can be emphasized and made clearer by the use of contrasting colors. The effectiveness of aids and the ease of their preparation can be increased by initially planning them in rough draft form. Revisions and alterations are easier to make at that time than after their completion. The rough draft should be carefully checked for technical accuracy, proper terminology, grammar, spelling, basic balance, clarity, and simplicity. Instructional aids should also be reviewed to determine whether their use is feasible in the training environment and whether they are appropriate for the students.

In practice, the choice of instructional aids depends on several factors. Availability, feasibility, or cost may impose realistic limitations. The number of students in a class and the existing facilities are other considerations. In some school situations, the designers of the curriculum determine the use of instructional aids. In this case, the science teacher may have little control over their use. On the other hand, an independent science teacher may have considerable latitude, but limited resources.

TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS

Some of the most common and economical aids are chalk or marker boards, and supplemental print materials, including charts, diagrams, and graphs. Other aids, which usually are more expensive, are projected materials, video, computer-based programs, and models, mock-ups, or cut-aways.

CHALK OR MARKER BOARD

The chalk or marker board is one of the most widely used tools for science teachers. Its versatility and effectiveness provide several advantages for most types of instruction. First, the material presented can be erased, allowing the surface to be used again and again; and second, the boards serve as an excellent medium for joint student-science teacher activity in the classroom. The following practices are fundamental in the use of the chalk or marker board:

• Keep the chalk or marker board clean.

• Erase all irrelevant material.

• Keep chalk, markers, erasers, cleaning cloths, rulers, and related items readily available to avoid interruption of the presentation.

• Organize and practice the chalk or marker board presentation in advance.

• Write or draw large enough for everyone in the group to see.

• Leave a margin around the material and sufficient space between lines of copy so the board is not overcrowded.

• Present material simply and briefly.

• Make only one point at a time. A complete outline tends to distract students and makes a logical presentation difficult. If writing has been previously prepared, it should be covered and then revealed one step at a time.

• If necessary, use the ruler, compass, or other devices in making drawings.

• Use colored chalk or marker for emphasis.

• Underline statements for emphasis.

• Use the upper part of the board. In many classrooms, students may not be able to see the lower half.

• Stand to one side of the board to avoid hiding the essential information.

• Use a pointer when appropriate.

• Adjust lighting as necessary to remove glare.

SUPPLEMENTAL PRINT MATERIAL

Print media, including photographs, reproductions of pictures, drawings, murals, cartoons, and other print materials are valuable supplemental aids. Charts, diagrams, and graphs are also in this category.

Many of these items are suitable for long-term use on bulletin boards and in briefing areas.

Pictures, drawings, and photographs are especially effective because they provide common visual imagery for both science teachers and students. In addition, they also provide realistic details necessary for visual recognition of important subject material. In many cases, this type of supplemental training media may be reproduced in a format for projection on a screen or other clear surface.

Charts, diagrams, and graphs include any printed material which gives information in tabular form. There are several types of charts which can be used in presenting data such as the pie chart, the flow chart, and the organizational chart, among others.

The type of chart selected for use depends largely on the type of information the science teacher wants to convey.

An important factor is the chart’s format. Since charts may consist of a series of single sheets or be tied together in a flip-chart format with several pages, the location and handling of them should be planned in advance.

A graph is a symbolic drawing which shows relationships or makes comparisons. The most common types are the line graph and the bar graph. The selection of a graph for use in any given situation depends upon the type of information the science teacher wants to convey.

Charts, diagrams, and graphs can be used effectively to show relationships, chronological changes, distributions, components, and flow. They are easy to construct and can be produced in the same manner as pictures. In addition, they can be drawn on a chalk or marker board and can be duplicated. Care must be taken to display only a small amount of material and to make the material as simple but meaningful as possible.

Numerous other useful print items may be considered as supplemental training aids. Some of these include study guides, exercise books, course outlines, and syllabi. Well-designed course outlines are especially useful to students because they list the key points and help students organize note taking during a lecture.

Self Study Assignment 1 ICT

WHAT ARE ICTs AND WHAT TYPES OF ICTs ARE COMMONLY USED IN EDUCATION?

ICTs stand for information and communication technologies and are defined, for the purposes of this primer, as a “diverse set of technological tools and resources used to communicate, and to create, disseminate, store, and manage information.” These technologies include computers, the Internet, broadcasting technologies (radio and television), and telephony.

In recent years there has been a groundswell of interest in how computers and the Internet can best be harnessed to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of education at all levels and in both formal and non-formal settings. But ICTs are more than just these technologies; older technologies such as the telephone, radio and television, although now given less attention, have a longer and richer history as instructional tools. For instance, radio and television have for over forty years been used for open and distance learning, although print remains the cheapest,most accessible and therefore most dominant delivery mechanism in both developed and developing countries.6 The use of computers and the Internet is still in its infancy in developing countries, if these are used at all, due to limited infrastructure and the attendant high costs of access.

Allama Iqbal Open University (AIOU) combines the use of print, recorded audio and video, broadcast radio and television as well as online education for promoting distance based education and non-formal education in Pakistan. AIOU has also started online courses and is also providing access to online resources. Similarly, Virtual University (VU) in Pakistan is offering distance education through internet and television technologies. Video recording of lectures of different courses of VU are also available in CDs from different recommended educational centers and their other educational resources are also available online to students like E-library and course lectures. The Open University of the United Kingdom (UKOU), established in 1969 as the first educational institution in the world wholly dedicated to open and distance learning, still relies heavily on print-based materials supplemented by radio, television and, in recent years, online programming.

WHAT IS E-LEARNING?

Although most commonly associated with higher education and corporate training, e-learning encompasses learning at all levels, both formal and non-formal, that uses an information network—the Internet, an intranet (LAN) or extranet (WAN)—whether wholly or in part, for course delivery, interaction and/or facilitation. Others prefer the term online learning. Web-based learning is a subset of e-learning and refers to learning using an Internet browser (such as Netscape or Internet Explorer).

WHAT IS BLENDED LEARNING?

Another term that is gaining currency is blended learning. This refers to learning models that combine traditional classroom practice with e-learning solutions. For example, students in a traditional class can be assigned both print-based and online materials, have online mentoring sessions with their teacher through chat, and are subscribed to a class email list. Or a Web-based training course can be enhanced by periodic face-to-face instruction. “Blending” was prompted by the recognition that not all learning is best achieved in an electronically-mediated environment, particularly one that dispenses with a live instructor altogether. Instead, consideration must be given to the subject matter, the learning objectives and outcomes, the characteristics of the learners, and the learning context in order to arrive at the optimum mix of instructional and delivery methods.

WHAT IS OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING?

Open and distance learning is defined by the Commonwealth of Learning as “a way of providing learning opportunities that is characterized by the separation of teacher and learner in time or place, or both time and place; learning that is certified in some way by an institution or agency; the use of a variety of media, including print and electronic; two-way communications that allow learners and tutors to interact; the possibility of occasional face-to-face meetings; and a specialized division of labour in the production and delivery of courses.”

WHAT IS MEANT BY A LEARNER-CENTERED ENVIRONMENT?

The National Research Council of the U.S. defines learner-centered environments as those that “pay careful attention to the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and beliefs that learners bring with them to the classroom.” The impetus for learner-centredness derives from a theory of learning called constructivism, which views learning as a process in which individuals “construct” meaning based on prior knowledge and experience. Experience enables individuals to build mental models or schemas, which in turn provide meaning and organization to subsequent experience. Thus knowledge is not “out there”, independent of the learner and which the learner passively receives; rather, knowledge is created through an active process in which the learner transforms information, constructs hypothesis, and makes decisions using his/her mental models. A form of constructivism called social constructivism also emphasizes the role of the teacher, parents, peers and other community members in helping learners to master concepts that they would not be able to understand on their own. For social constructivists, learning must be active, contextual and social. It is best done in a group setting with the teacher as facilitator or guide.

ICTs IN EDUCATION

For developing countries ICTs have the potential for increasing access to and improving the relevance and quality of education. It thus represents a potentially equalizing strategy for developing countries. [ICTs] greatly facilitate the acquisition and absorption of knowledge, offering developing countries unprecedented opportunities to enhance educational systems, improve policy formulation and execution, and widen the range of opportunities for business and the poor. One of the greatest hardships endured by the poor, and by many others who live in the poorest countries, is their sense of isolation. The new communications technologies promise to reduce that sense of isolation, and to open access to knowledge in ways unimaginable not long ago.

However, the reality of the Digital Divide—the gap between those who have access to and control of technology and those who do not—means that the introduction and integration of ICTs at different levels and in various types of education will be a most challenging undertaking. Failure to meet the challenge would mean a further widening of the knowledge gap and the deepening of existing economic and social inequalities.

HOW CAN ICTS HELP EXPAND ACCESS TO EDUCATION?

ICTs are a potentially powerful tool for extending educational opportunities, both formal and non-formal, to previously underserved constituencies—scattered and rural populations, groups traditionally excluded from education due to cultural or social reasons such as ethnic minorities, girls and women, persons with disabilities, and the elderly, as well as all others who for reasons of cost or because of time constraints are unable to enroll on campus.

• Anytime, anywhere. One defining feature of ICTs is their ability to transcend time and space.

ICTs make possible asynchronous learning, or learning characterized by a time lag between the delivery of instruction and its reception by learners. Online course materials, for example, may be accessed 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. ICT-based educational delivery (e.g., educational programming broadcast over radio or television) also dispenses with the need for all learners and the instructor to be in one physical location. Additionally, certain types of ICTs, such as teleconferencing technologies, enable instruction to be received simultaneously by multiple, geographically dispersed learners (i.e., synchronous learning).

• Access to remote learning resources. Teachers and learners no longer have to rely solely on printed books and other materials in physical media housed in libraries (and available in limited quantities) for their educational needs. With the Internet and the World Wide Web, a wealth of learning materials in almost every subject and in a variety of media can now be accessed from anywhere at anytime of the day and by an unlimited number of people. This is particularly significant for many schools in developing countries, and even some in developed countries, that have limited and outdated library resources. ICTs also facilitate access to resource persons— mentors, experts, researchers, professionals, business leaders, and peers—all over the world.

How does the use of ICTs help prepare individuals for the workplace?

One of the most commonly cited reasons for using ICTs in the classroom has been to better prepare the current generation of students for a workplace where ICTs, particularly computers, the Internet and related technologies, are becoming more and more ubiquitous. Technological literacy, or the ability to use ICTs effectively and efficiently, is thus seen as representing a competitive edge in an increasingly globalizing job market. Technological literacy, however, is not the only skill well-paying jobs in the new global economy will require. EnGauge of the North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (U.S.) has identified what it calls “21st Century Skills,” which includes digital age literacy (consisting of functional literacy, visual literacy, scientific literacy, technological literacy, information literacy, cultural literacy, and global awareness), inventive thinking, higher-order thinking and sound reasoning, effective communication, and high productivity. (See Table 1 for a brief explanation of each skill.)

Table 1. Skills Needed in the Workplace of the Future

Functional literacy	Ability to decipher meaning and express ideas in a range of media; this includes the use of images, graphics, video, charts and graphs or visual literacy
Scientific literacy	Understanding of both the theoretical and applied aspects of science and mathematics
Technological literacy	Competence in the use of information and communication technologies
Information literacy	Ability to find, evaluate and make appropriate use of information, including via the use of ICTs
Cultural literacy	Appreciation of the diversity of cultures
Global awareness	Understanding of how nations, corporations, and communities all over the world are interrelated

Inventive Thinking

Adaptability	Ability to adapt and manage in a complex, interdependent world
Curiosity	Desire to know
Creativity	Ability to use imagination to create new things
Risk-taking	Ability to take risks

Higher-Order Thinking Creative problem-solving and logical thinking that result in soundjudgments

Effective Communication

Teaming	Ability to work in a team
Collaboration and interpersonal skills	Ability to interact smoothly and work effectively with others
Personal and social responsibility	Be accountable for the way they use ICTs and to learn to use ICTs for the public good
Interactive communication	Competence in conveying, transmitting, accessing and understanding information
High Productivity	Ability to prioritize, plan, and manage programs and projects to achieve the desired Results Ability to apply what they learn in the classroom to real-life contexts to create relevant, high-quality products

Source: Adapted from EnGauge. North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. Available Online at

http://www.ncrel.org/engauge/skills/21skills.htm. Accessed 31 May 2002.

The potential of ICTs to promote the acquisition of these skills is tied to its use as a tool for raising educational quality, including promoting the shift to a learner-centered environment.

How can the use of ICTs help improve the quality of education?

Improving the quality of education and training is a critical issue, particularly at a time of educational expansion. ICTs can enhance the quality of education in several ways: by increasing learner motivation and engagement, by facilitating the acquisition of basic skills, and by enhancing teacher training. ICTs are also transformational tools which, when used appropriately, can promote the shift to a learner-centered environment.

Motivating to learn. ICTs such as videos, television and multimedia computer software that combine text, sound, and colorful, moving images can be used to provide challenging and authentic content that will engage the student in the learning process. Interactive radio likewise makes use of sound effects, songs, dramatizations, comic skits, and other performance conventions to compel the students to listen and become involved in the lessons being delivered. More so than any other type of ICT, networked computers with Internet connectivity can increase learner motivation as it combines the media richness and interactivity of other ICTs with the opportunity to connect with real people and to participate in real world events.

Facilitating the acquisition of basic skills. The transmission of basic skills and concepts that are the foundation of higher order thinking skills and creativity can be facilitated by ICTs through drill and practice. Educational television programs such as Sesame Street use repetition and reinforcement to teach the alphabet, numbers, colors, shapes and other basic concepts. Most of the early uses of computers were for computer-based learning (also called computer-assisted instruction) that focused on mastery of skills and content through repetition and reinforcement. (See section below on Computer- Based Learning.)

Enhancing teacher training. ICTs have also been used to improve access to and the quality of teacher training. For example, institutions like the Cyber Teacher Training Center (CTTC) in South Korea are taking advantage of the Internet to provide better teacher professional development opportunities to inservice teachers. The government-funded CTTC, established in 1997, offers self-directed, self-paced Web-based courses for primary and secondary school teachers. Courses include “Computers in the Information Society,”“Education Reform,” and “Future Society and Education.” Online tutorials are also offered, with some courses requiring occasional face-to-face meetings.15 In China, large-scale radio and television-based teacher education has for many years been conducted by the China Central Radio and TV University,16 the Shanghai Radio and TV University and many other RTVUs in the country.

At Indira Gandhi National Open University, satellite-based one-way video- and two-way audio-conferencing was held in 1996, supplemented by print-materials and recorded video, to train 910 primary school teachers and facilitators from 20 district training institutes in Karnataka State. The teachers interacted with remote lecturers by telephone and fax.

HOW CAN ICTS HELP TRANSFORM THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT INTO ONE THAT IS LEARNER-CENTERED?

Research has shown that the appropriate use of ICTs can catalyze the paradigmatic shift in both content and pedagogy that is at the heart of education reform in the 21st century.19 If designed and implemented properly, ICT-supported education can promote the acquisition of the knowledge and skills that will empower students for lifelong learning.

When used appropriately, ICTs—especially computers and Internet technologies— enable new ways of teaching and learning rather than simply allow teachers and students to do what they have done before in a better way. These new ways of teaching and learning are underpinned by constructivist theories of learning and constitute a shift from a teacher-centered pedagogy—in its worst form characterized by memorization and rote learning—to one that is learner-centered. (See Table 2 for a comparison of a traditional pedagogy and an emerging pedagogy enabled by ICTs.)

• Active learning. ICT-enhanced learning mobilizes tools for examination, calculation and analysis of information, thus providing a platform for student inquiry, analysis and construction of new information. Learners therefore learn as they do and, whenever appropriate, work on real-life problems in-depth, making learning less abstract and more relevant to the learner’s life situation. In this way, and in contrast to memorization-based or rote learning, ICT-enhanced learning promotes increased learner engagement. ICT-enhanced learning is also “just-in-time” learning in .which learners can choose what to learn when they need to learn it.

• Collaborative learning. ICT-supported learning encourages interaction and cooperation among students, teachers, and experts regardless of where they are. Apart from modeling real-world interactions, ICT-supported learning provides learners the opportunity to work with people from different cultures, thereby helping to enhance learners’ teaming and communicative skills as well as their global awareness. It models learning done throughout the learner’s lifetime by expanding the learning space to include not just peers but also mentors and experts from different fields.

Table 2. Overview of Pedagogy in the Industrial versus the Information Society

Aspect	Less (‘traditional pedagogy’)	More (‘emerging pedagogy’ for the information society)
Active	• Activities prescribed by teacher • Whole class instruction • Little variation in activities • Pace determined by the programme	• Activities determined by learners • Small groups • Many different activities • Pace determined by learners
Collaborative	• Individual • Homogenous groups • Everyone for him/herself	• Working in teams • Heterogeneous groups • Supporting each other
Creative	• Reproductive learning • Apply known solutions to problems	• Productive learning • Find new solutions to problems
Integrative	• No link between theory and practice • Separate subjects • Discipline-based • Individual teachers	• Integrating theory and practice • Relations between subjects • Thematic • Teams of teachers
Evaluative	• Teacher-directed • Summative	•Student-directed • Diagnostic

Source: Thijs, A., et al. Learning Through the Web Available Online http://www.decidenet.nl/Publications/

Web_Based_Learning.pdf Accessed 31 May 2002.

• Creative Learning. ICT-supported learning promotes the manipulation of existing information and the creation of real-world products rather than the regurgitation of received information.

• Integrative learning. ICT-enhanced learning promotes a thematic, integrative approach to teaching and learning.This approach eliminates the artificial separation between the different disciplines and between theory and practice that characterizes the traditional classroom approach.

• Evaluative learning. ICT-enhanced learning is student-directed and diagnostic. Unlike static, text- or print-based educational technologies, ICT-enhanced learning recognizes that there are many different learning pathways and many different articulations of knowledge. ICTs allow learners to explore and discover rather than merely listen and remember.

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Unit– 1: Introduction:

• Defining various images of curriculum

• Elements of curriculum: Objectives, content, teaching methods and evaluation

• Basic components of curriculum and instruction, and their inter-relationship

• Role of school leaders and teachers in curriculum development

• Role of IT in curriculum development

Unit – 2: Foundations of Curriculum:

• Philosophical foundations

• Historical foundations

• Psychological foundations

• Socio-cultural foundations

• Economic foundations

Unit – 3: Curriculum Goals, Aims and Objective:

• Taxonomies of educational objectives

• Cognitive domain

• Affective domain

• Psychomotor domain

Unit – 4: Curriculum Theory and Practice: Various models:

• Objective Model

• Process model

• Integration vs. differentiated curriculum

• Teacher vs. student centered curriculum

• Top down vs. bottom up curriculum

• Contemporary issues and trends

Unit – 5: Curriculum Development Process

• Curriculum development: Basic concepts

• Steps in Curriculum development process

• Selection and organization of curriculum content: Definition and principles

• Procedures of curriculum development: Judgmental, experimental, analytical and consensual

• Curriculum change and innovation

• Curriculum development process in Pakistan

• Curriculum at various levels (national, international , state, local )

Unit – 6: Curriculum Reforms in Pakistan

• Curriculum reforms in the light of national educational policies

• Review of curriculum change process in Pakistan

• Issues of curriculum change

: Introduction:

• Defining various images of curriculum

• Elements of curriculum: Objectives, content, teaching methods and evaluation

• Basic components of curriculum and instruction, and their inter-relationship

• Role of school leaders and teachers in curriculum development

• Role of IT in curriculum development

DEFINITION OF CURRICULUM

Curriculum

1. . All the courses of study offered by an educational institution.

http://www.answers.com/topic/curriculum

2. A series of planned instruction that is coordinated and articulated in a manner designed to result in the achievement by students of specific knowledge and skills and the application of this knowledge.

http://www.smasd.org/pssa/html/currdevl/res1-d.htm

3: Curriculum is all planned learnings for which the school is responsible. 'Planned learnings' can be long written documents specifying content,

http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=TXz0tDGQldoC&pg=PA5&lpg=PA5&dq=DEFINITION+OF+CURRICULUM&source=web&ots=Les1xUToSo&sig=xvd1DjW3Z54D7fMkXjW1SCQ-5K0&hl=en

ELEMENT OF CURRICULUM

1. OJECTIVE

2. CONTENT

3. TEACHING METHOD

4. EVALUATION

1: GOAL AND OJECTIVE:

List of the learning outcomes expected from participation in the curriculum. This section includes a discussion of how the curriculum supports national, state, and local standards.

2: SUBJECT MATTER:

Designation of what area of content, facts, arena of endeavor, that the curriculum deals with. (This is a further elaboration of the "topic" description in the Aim.)

3:TEACHING METHOD:

Describes the activities the learners are going to engage in, and the sequence of those activities. Also describes what the TEACHER is to do in order to facilitate those activities. (This is like the traditional "lesson plan" except for a curriculum it may include more than one lesson.)

4:EVALUATION:

Includes plan for assessing learning and evaluating the curriculum as a whole. May include description of a model project, sample exam questions, or other elements of assessment. Also should include plan for evaluating the curriculum as a whole, including feedback from learners.

http://cuip.uchicago.edu/wit/2000/curriculum/homeroommodules/curriculumTerms/elements.htm

BASIC COMPONENT OF CURRICULUM

1. • Reason for Staff Philosophy –

The idea of an underlying philosophy and what it can accomplish should not be underestimated. Consider our education system today. It exists precisely because of our forefathers’ vision and belief that everyone is entitled to an education. Because visions and thoughts of those in control eventually “pass on” to the underlying subjects, it is essential that these visions and thoughts be written down clearly and be exposed openly to the community. If we believe that all students can learn under a given set of conditions, let us make an appropriate statement saying so. Perhaps our philosophy will include the infusion of technology. If it does, the community can be assured that the required software and computer lab time will be allotted for. Thus the philosophy from “above” sets the stage for learning. (At this time, one can go into more detail regarding bulleted items on slide 1a. If available, pass out an example of a philosophy statement from another project.)

• Reason for Student Philosophy - The primary target for any curriculum is the student. His/her stage for learning must also be set. This may be accomplished by helping him/her to … (read items slide 1b).

1. Curriculum Alignment –

One of the primary purposes of a Curriculum Committee is to align the curriculum: to ensure that what is written (be it lesson plan, textbook, hand-out, test, …) is taught, and what is taught, tested.

3. Curriculum Cycle –

The three items above (curriculum, instruction, assessment) are better expressed as a cycle. The curriculum dictates what is taught (instruction); at the same time, it dictates what is to be assessed. After an assessment, we check our instruction: Did it address the required items in the curriculum? Was it sufficient or does it need improvement? As we instruct, we must follow what is laid out in the curriculum and direct it towards the ending assessment tool.

4. Curriculum Style

(Slide is self explanatory. Could give examples of each type. Examples of backload: NYS Regents Courses, College Board AP Courses, etc.)

5. Constraints of Environment

Social conditions that may affect decisions: high/low concentration of new immigrants or specific ethnic groups. Economic conditions that may affect decisions: high/low concentration of welfare families, types of local businesses and/ or industry, etc. Geographic location may also come under consideration. To a certain degree we cannot change these conditions.

• Learning Styles - Since the end-all target is the student, his/ her learning style must be addressed.

1. Objectives –

As daily objectives are developed, we need to keep in mind…(read slide).

6. Assessment

is used to …(read slide).

7. Standards Alignment –

Curriculum must be aligned with national, state, and local standards.

8. Need for Strong Facilitator –

For a successful program, …(read slide).

http://www.eduref.org/Virtual/Lessons/Vocational_Education/Instructional_Issues/VCI0200.html

Standards for School Leaders in curriculum development

STANDARD 1

Maximizes student learning by working with staff to translate knowledge of learning theory and human development and relevant school data into successful curricular programs, instructional practices, and assessment strategies.

KNOWLEDGE

• understands theories of learning

• understands the developmental stages of children and adolescents

• understands curriculum theory and its relevance to the organization of curricular programs

• understands the principles of effective instruction and models of teaching

• understands the national standards of appropriate professional organizations (e.g., mathematics teachers, history teachers)

• understands qualitative and quantitative strategies for monitoring student performance

• understands the principles of adult learning

• understands the dimensions of effective professional development

• understands relevant models of supervision

• understands the sources of and how to access relevant data at the school and classroom levels

• understands behavioral management strategies and conditions necessary to create constructive, non-punitive learning environments

DISPOSITION

• is committed to excellence

• is committed to high expectations of self and others

• feels a strong personal affinity toward and commitment to issues of learning and teaching · believes that decisions should be made in the best interest of children

• believes that all children want to succeed, can learn, and will demonstrate high levels of performance

• honors the role of the teacher

• is dedicated to the belief in life-long learning for self, students, and teachers

• is committed to collegial relationships among teachers

• is committed to parental involvement in student learning

PERFORMANCE

• sets, communicates, and monitors high expectations for faculty and staff

• nurtures the development of a shared school vision and mission

• demonstrates a knowledge of learning theory

• demonstrates sensitivity toward developmental levels

• learns how students are doing

• promotes the active involvement of all students

• encourages risk-taking and is receptive to change

• promotes divergent thinking

• promotes an attitude of inquiry

• encourages teachers to maintain their own visions

• actively participates in professional development as a learner and as a teacher

• models life-long learning

• organizes and conducts staff development

• acts as a resource for teachers

• provides teachers with research that helps shape and improve

• acknowledges and rewards continuous development of teachers

• implements effective assessment procedures

• identifies and uses data relevant to the school

• conveys appropriate data in a useful fashion and timely manner

• explains and uses student assessment data to develop the school plan and to help staff shape the instructional and curricular program

• encourages the use of varied approaches to assessment

• organizes the staff to facilitate learning

• facilitates the development of an instructional program appropriate to the needs and developmental levels of the students

• monitors the implementation of instructional practices

• promotes the development of a safe, orderly climate for learning

• secures resources and materials to implement the instructional program

• collects and analyzes data on teacher performance on a regular basis

• provides meaningful feedback to teachers

• uses staff evaluation information for the improvement of instruction

• employs technology to enhance the educational program

STANDARD 2

Applies human relations and interpersonal skills to foster a climate of continuous learning and improvement.

KNOWLEDGE

• understands theories of human relations

• knowledge of leadership theories and styles

• understands motivational theories and strategies

• knowledge of effective communication strategies and skills (listening, speaking, writing, non-verbal)

• knowledge of human relations skills (conflict resolution, group processes, decision making, team building, delegation, consensus building, providing feedback)

DISPOSITION

• values the thoughts, feelings, efforts, and ideas of others

• values diversity

• is committed to democratic leadership and shared decision making

• is willing to compromise

• is willing to take risks/values risk taking among others

• values group or team approach

• believes that others are personally and professionally motivated toward ensuring the well-being of students

• is willing to learn from others

• is willing to share power

PERFORMANCE

• recognizes and is sensitive to individual differences

• demonstrates an interest in others

• is considerate of others

• establishes credibility

• maintains accessibility and visibility

• creates healthy dissatisfaction with the status quo

• invites risk taking

• promotes enthusiasm

• creates a win-win environment

• monitors staff morale

• provides support

• recognizes accomplishments

• seeks opportunities to share power--empowers others

• plans and organizes to involve community, parents, teachers, and students in decisions

• actively involves others in the decision-making processes

• ensures that there is equitable access to the decision-making process

• models facilitator role in shared decision making

• fosters open communication

• uses effective organizational skills

• models team building

• uses effective oral and written communication

• employs effective problem solving and conflict resolution strategies

• demonstrates effective decision-making skills

• conducts effective meetings

STANDARD 3

Facilitates the development and maintenance of organizational and managerial systems consistent with the vision and mission of the school community.

KNOWLEDGE

• is knowledgeable of theories and strategies of organizational management

• is knowledgeable of goal setting and strategic planning

• is knowledgeable of personnel management

• is knowledgeable of fiscal management

• is knowledgeable of time management

• is knowledgeable of physical resource management

• is knowledgeable of emerging societal and educational trends and issues

• is knowledgeable of (or knowledge of how to access) appropriate regulatory frameworks

• is willing to make tough decisions about resources based on the school goals and mission

• is willing to accept responsibility for the overall organization

DISPOSITION

• is inclined to focus on the "big picture"

• values the role of all school systems in contributing to the success of the school

• is committed to a systems approach to organizational development, decision making, and change

• believes that all aspects of the organization and the role of the management of the school exist for the education of the students

• is committed to letting the needs of students, the mission of the school, and powerful conceptions of learning and teaching shape organizational structures and managerial systems

• values the team concept

• believes in shared decision making

• is committed to delegating responsibility

PERFORMANCE

• manages change

• ensures that all personnel understand their roles in the organization

• creates conditions that motivate

• empowers others by delegating responsibility

• develops strategic plans and organizational structures to support the implementation of the school mission

• brings the various systems of the school into a cohesive plan that supports the school mission

• employs resources to optimize their impact on the school mission

• works closely with managers of important systems within the school (e.g., custodial area) and the school system (e.g., special education office)develops a comprehensive plan for and monitors and assesses the impact of organizational systems on the mission of the school

• monitors personnel responsible for all systems

• eliminates unnecessary system functions

• manages one's own time in a way that demonstrates commitment to the school mission

• provides timely and useful data on organizational systems to supervisors and members of the school team

• meets deadlines in carrying out responsibilities

• manages facilities that project an image of pride to students, families, and the community

• maintains accurate financial records

• demonstrates consistency and fairness in fiscal and budgetary procedures

• ensures that needed technological support is in place

• ensures the availability of support services for students (e.g., health services, co-curricular activities)

• processes paperwork effectively and quickly--does not become enmeshed in paper work nor allows it to detract energy from achieving the school mission

STANDARD 4

Exhibits team building skills in the development of ownership among all stakeholders in the school community.

KNOWLEDGE

• understands the inter-connectedness of school and community

• knows the community power structure and the community culture

• knows the network of social service agencies available in the community

• knows key stakeholders and what they can contribute

• understands public and media relations

• knows team and coalition building skills

DISPOSITION

• holds an expanded view of the school that includes the external community

• is committed to the realization of community ownership of the school

• values the worth of all people

• values the opinions of others

• believes that others are trustworthy

• believes that everyone has talents and strengths that he/she can contribute to the common good

• is sensitive to the needs and interests of others

• believes in self and inherent worth--self confident

• is open to new ideas

• is willing to share power, ownership, and credit

• values team concept

• is willing to learn from others

PERFORMANCE

• analyzes and interprets the larger community in which the school is nested

• studies and incorporates community values, standards, and culture into school decisions

• utilizes the community as a resource for learning

• helps the school participate in community development and community affairs

• is highly visible in the external school community and is accessible to parents and other community members

• maintains open channels of communication and communicates with all segments of the external school community

• communicates effectively with the media

• develops and implements strategies to involve parents and other community members in the life of the school

• solicits input from stakeholders

• uses knowledge, competencies, and experiences of stakeholders in the service of school goals

• makes stakeholders feel important to the organization

• recognizes and rewards contributions from stakeholders

• helps others see the results of their input and work

• promotes ownership

• clarifies the agendas and responsibilities of stakeholders

• establishes parameters for stakeholders

• builds partnerships and coalitions with key community groups and agencies

• demonstrates the range of skills needed for team building and coalition building

• demonstrates persistence in keeping groups focused and active in their commitment to the school

• builds trust among community partners and between the school and its partners

• promotes the development of leadership within the team

• uses coaching techniques to help team members achieve their goals

• coordinates resources of various partners to help the school achieve its mission

• sorts out and helps individuals and groups address their objectives while achieving common goals

STANDARD 5

Models and promotes ethics and integrity in professional and personal activities.

KNOWLEDGE

• is knowledgeable of federal and state laws

• is knowledgeable of due process

• is knowledgeable of board policies and regulations

• understands organizational chain of command and organizational expectations

• understands community values

• understands accepted professional standards and codes of ethics

DISPOSITION

• is determined to stand on principles

• believes in the principles of right and wrong

• is committed to equity and fairness

• is committed to the rights of others

• is committed to truth and honesty

• is willing to be a model for students and teachers

• believes in being responsible and accountable

• is willing to acknowledge one's own limitations and mistakes--including the willingness to accept constructive criticism

PERFORMANCE

• demonstrates genuine concern and respect for parents, faculty/staff, and students

• treats others with dignity and sensitivity

• exhibits high moral standards

• models principle-centered leadership

• ensures that the important educational and moral values of the school community influence the decision-making process

• does what he/she says he/she will do

• demonstrates courage in decision making

• applies policies and procedures in a fair (equitable) and impartial manner

• performs duties in a non-arbitrary, non-manipulative, and non-capricious manner

• avoids using position for personal gain

• develops a written code of ethics for the school

• promotes and supports ethical behavior throughout the school community and ensures that unethical behavior is dealt with

• maintains confidentiality of information

• adheres to laws, policies, and regulations

• evaluates personnel with regard to actual performance rather than hearsay or feelings

• shepherds and maintains public resources--acts in a fiscally responsible fashion

• makes decisions on sound principles, values, data, policy, and law

• supports collaborative agreements

• makes ethics part of staff development activities

PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES

GROUNDING PRINCIPLES

The preparation program . . .

• has a well-defined philosophical base that informs all aspects of the program

• is based on the standards of the profession--emphasizing professional values, beliefs, and ethics

• demonstrates program integrity and fidelity to defining values and viewpoints

• has the commitment and support of the college and university and the practitioner community

• promotes recognition of and commitment to service for children and youth

• includes diverse perspectives

GENERAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES

The preparation program . . .

• is anchored in learning and teaching

• is grounded in the world of practice--problem-based, clinically-focused, field- based

• is student-centered, emphasizing personalized learning and promoting individual development

• emphasizes active learning

• highlights collaborative learning and opportunities for students to learn from colleagues in the program and school administrators in the field

• is a collaborative effort between the college/university and K-12 school districts

• includes rigorous entry standards

• integrates state-of-the-art technology throughout

• emphasizes integrated, thematic instruction

• has a sequential, developmental curriculum

• connects knowledge, beliefs, and skills to effective leadership behavior

• highlights ongoing, performance-based assessments of students--including periodic checkpoints, exit examinations, and follow-ups

• maintains accountability through ongoing internal and external program assessments and program revisions

http://www.mde.k12.ms.us/public/standard.htm

ROLE OF ICT IN CURRICULUM

Using ICT as a tool for learning enables students to:  efficiently and effectively access digital information to assist with investigating issues, solving problems and decision making  produce creative solutions to support learning and develop new understandings in areas of learning  communicate, share and work collaboratively in local and global environments  understand the legal, ethical and health and safety implications of using ICT and their responsibilities as users and developers  develop new thinking and learning skills to support learning.
ICT Links within the Syllabus Development and Resources directorate

Unit –2: Curriculum Theory and Practice: Various models:

• Objective Model

• Process model

• Integration vs. differentiated curriculum

• Teacher vs. student centered curriculum

• Top down vs. bottom up curriculum

• Contemporary issues and trends

Curriculum theory and practice

The organization of schooling and further education has long been associated with the idea of a curriculum. But what actually is curriculum, and how might it be conceptualized? We explore curriculum theory and practice and its relation to informal education.

contents: introduction | curriculum as transmission | curriculum as product | curriculum as process | curriculum as praxis | curriculum and context | curriculum and informal education | further reading | links | how to cite this article

1: OBJECTIVE MODLE

Curriculum Models

Objectives-Based Process Model Key References: Bloom, B (1971): Handbook of formative and summative evaluation of student learning. New York McGraw-Hill Davies, I (1975) Writing general objectives and writing specific objectives. In Curriculum Design (1975) edited by Golby, M et al Open University Books Curriculum content: - Content is usually selected on a vocational basis and is concerned with what the learner 'needs to know' in order to carry out certain tasks in the workplace. Learning Outcomes (Ends): - Learning outcomes are specified in terms of what the learners will be capable of doing at the end of the course of instruction. Objectives are written with increasing levels of specificity (Davies 1975) and by so doing broad aims and goals are 'operationalised'. Key concepts, criteria and procedures are also specified. Learning Activities (Means to Ends): - By employing hierarchies of objectives, notably Bloom's Taxonomy (Bloom 1956), learning activities can be designed to match the appropriate objectives. e.g. comprehending, applying, analysing and so on, starting with lower order objectives and moving to increasing levels of complexity. It is up to the teacher to devise learning outcomes together with appropriate learning activities for the students. For this reason the Objectives model is often associated with an authoritarian view of learning which is instrumental and concerned with techniques. Bloom's Taxonomy Assessment: - This model of curriculum would claim to lend itself to an objective model of assessment where learning outcomes having been clearly specified can be easily tested. The failure of students to achieve a given set of objectives is seen as the responsibility of the curriculum planner and the teacher. In its purest form, the curriculum is first put through a testing process with a sample of 'typical' students. Modifications are then made to the objectives and to the teaching methods as a result of this process of feedback. In some extreme examples of the Objectives model, notably the Keller Plan, students work at their own pace and are required to achieve 'mastery' of one set of objectives before they move on to the next. Main Application: - The Objectives model is usually associated with curriculum design in the field of vocational training. It has been pointed out elsewhere that the 'reproductive' end of the Skills Schema is often associated with the 'knowledge, comprehension and application' which are essential prerequisites for higher order problem solving activities. It follows, therefore, that a careful analysis of existing curricula in higher education will often reveal 'training' elements that would benefit from the careful planning required to implement the objectives model.

http://www.ssdd.bcu.ac.uk/crumpton/curriculum-design/key-concept-map/obj-based-proc-model.htm

Curriculum Models

Subject-Based Process Model Curriculum content Content is selected to exemplify the key concepts, criteria and procedures which best represent the structure of a body of knowledge. It is assumed that within knowledge there are number of distinct types of rational judgments. For example: 'a moral judgement is not validated in the same way as a mathematical theorem, nor a historical explanation in the same way as a theological proposition'. Hirst (1975) has suggested that all knowledge and understanding is located in a number of domains and has proposed mathematics, physical sciences, knowledge of persons, literature, the fine arts, religion and philosophy as all having distinctive 'ways of thinking'. Learning Outcomes (Ends) Specifying key concepts, criteria and procedures as learning outcomes would distort the curriculum. This is because they are problematic within a subject. They should therefore become the focus of speculation not the object of mastery. The purpose of the curriculum is to help the learner to think like and see the world as does a historian, a mathematician, an industrial designer etc; etc. ' In studying a body of socially prescribed knowledge the student is concerned with the 'predatory pursuit of truth'. The curriculum is never deliberately vocational and the 'truth' may not be of any practical use at all. Learning Activities (Means to Ends) It is up to the teacher to devise learning activities for the students, but these should be worthwhile processes in themselves rather than means towards specific learning objectives. These activities will have a wide range of worthwhile cognitive content (unlike games) and they should be designed to illuminate the kinds of rational thinking and judgement that are peculiar to a particular body of knowledge or discipline. Assessment The subject based process model of curriculum cannot be directed towards an examination without loss of quality. In assessment of the students' work the teacher is an appraiser or critic not a marker. Assessment is about the teaching of self assessment. Main Application There is implicit acceptance of the Stenhouse model in the design of many humanities courses, although most would not accept the abolition of formal examinations in their patterns of assessment. References Hirst, P (1975) The nature and structure of curriculum objectives. In Curriculum Design (1975) edited by Golby, M et al Open University Books

http://www.ssdd.bcu.ac.uk/crumpton/curriculum-design/key-concept-map/subj-based-proc-model.htm