DOMAINS OF LEARNING
Besides the four basic levels of learning, educational psychologists have developed several additional levels.
These classifications consider what is to be learned. Is it knowledge only, a change in attitude, a physical skill, or a combination of knowledge and skill? One of the more useful categorizations of learning objectives includes three domains: cognitive domain (knowledge), affective domain (attitudes, beliefs, and values), and psychomotor domain (physical skills). Each of the domains has a hierarchy of educational objectives.
The listing of the hierarchy of objectives is often called taxonomy. Taxonomy of educational objectives is a systematic classification scheme for sorting learning outcomes into the three broad categories (cognitive, affective, and psychomotor) and ranking the desired outcomes in a developmental hierarchy from least complex to most complex.
COGNITIVE DOMAIN
The cognitive domain, described by Dr. Benjamin Bloom, is one of the best known educational domains.
It contains additional levels of knowledge and understanding and is commonly referred to as Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives.
E
ducational objectives in the cognitive domain refer to knowledge which Figure 1-4. Dr. Bloom’s hierarchical taxonomy for the cognitive domain (knowledge) includes six educational objective levels.
AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
The affective domain may be the least understood, and in many ways, the most important of the learning domains. A similar system for specifying attitudinal objectives has been developed by D.R. Krathwohl.
Like the Bloom tax
onomy, Krathwohl’s hierarchy attempts to arrange these objectives in an order of difficulty.
Since the affective domain is concerned with a student’s attitudes, personal beliefs, and values, measuring educational objectives in this domain is not easy.
For example, how is a positive attitude toward safety evaluated? Observable safety-related behavior indicates a positive attitude, but this is not like a simple pass/fail test that can be
Figure 1-5. D. R. Krathwohl’s hierarchical taxonomy for the affective domain (attitudes, beliefs, and values) contains five educational objective levels.
used to e
Figure 1-5. D. R. Krathwohl’s hierarchical taxonomy for the affective domain (attitudes, beliefs, and values) contains five educational objective levels.
valuate cognitive educational objective levels. Although a number of techniques are available for evaluation of achievement in the affective domain, most rely on indirect inferences.
Figure 1-5. D. R. Krathwohl’s hierarchical taxonomy for the affective domain (attitudes, beliefs, and values) contains five educational objective levels.
PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN
There are several taxonomies which deal with the psychomotor domain (physical skills), but none are as popularly recognized as the Bloom and Krathwohl taxonomies. However, the taxonomy developed by E.J.
S
impson also is generally acceptable. Psychomotor or physical skills always have been important in science. Typical activities involving these skills include learning to fly a precision instrument approach procedure, programming a GPS receiver, or using sophisticated maintenance equipment. As physical tasks and equipment become more complex, the requirement for integration of cognitive and physical skills increases.
Figure1. E.J. Simpson’s hierarchical taxonomy for the psychomotor domain (physical skills) consists of seven educational objective levels..
Instructional Material (A.V Aids)
Instructional aids should not be confused with training media. Educators generally describe training media as any physical means that communicates an instructional message to students. For example, the science teacher’s voice, printed text, video cassettes, interactive computer programs, part-task trainers, flight training devices or flight simulators, and numerous other types of training devices are considered training media.
Instructional aids, on the other hand, are devices that assist an science teacher in the teaching-learning process.
Instructional aids are not self-supporting; they are supplementary training devices. The key factor is that instructional aids support, supplement, or reinforce.
In general, the coverage of instructional aids in the first part of this chapter applies to a classroom setting with one science teacher and several students. The discussion about types of instructional aids begins with the most basic aids and progresses to the more complex and expensive aids. The last segment is about new training technologies which may apply to a typical classroom environment, as well as other training environments.
While science teachers may become involved in the selection and preparation of instructional aids, usually they are already in place. Science teachers simply need to learn how to effectively use them .
REASONS FOR USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS
In addition to helping students remember important information, instructional aids have other advantages.
When properly used, they help gain and hold the attention of students. Audio or visual aids can be very useful in supporting a topic, and the combination of both audio and visual stimuli is particularly effective since the two most important senses are involved. Science teachers should keep in mind that they often are salesmen of ideas, and many of the best sales techniques that attract the attention of potential clients are well worth considering. One caution—the instructional aid should keep student attention on the subject; it should not be a distracting gimmick.
Clearly, a major goal of all instruction is for the student to be able to retain as much knowledge of the subject as possible, especially the key points. Numerous studies have attempted to determine how well instructional aids serve this purpose. Indications from the studies vary greatly—from modest results, which show a 10 to
15 percent increase in retention, to more optimistic results in which retention is increased by as much as 80 percent.
Good instructional aids also can help solve certain language barrier problems. Consider the continued expansion of technical terminology in everyday usage. This, coupled with culturally diverse backgrounds of today’s students, makes it necessary for science teachers to be precise in their choice of terminology. Words or terms used in an instructional aid should be carefully selected to convey the same meaning for the student as they do for the science teacher. They should provide an accurate visual image and make learning easier for the student.
Another use for instructional aids is to clarify the relationships between material objects and concepts. When relationships are presented visually, they often are much easier to understand. For example, the subsystems within a physical unit are relatively easy to relate to each other through the use of schematics or diagrams. Symbols, graphs, and diagrams can also show relationships of location, size, time, frequency, and value. By symbolizing the factors involved, it is even possible to visualize abstract relationships.
Science teachers are frequently asked to teach more and more in a smaller time frame. Instructional aids can help them do this. For example, instead of using many words to describe a sound, object, or function, the science teacher plays a recording of the sound, shows a picture of the object, or presents a diagram of the function. Consequently, the student learns faster and more accurately, and the science teacher saves time in the process.
Use of Instructional Aids
Aids should be simple and compatible with the learning outcomes to be achieved. Obviously, an explanation of elaborate equipment may require detailed schematics or mockups, but less complex equipment may lend itself to only basic shapes or figures. Since aids are normally used in conjunction with a verbal presentation, words on the aid should be kept to a minimum.
In many cases, visual symbols and slogans can replace extended use of verbiage. The science teacher should
Instructional aids should appeal to the student and be based on sound principles of instructional design.
When practical, they should encourage student participation. They also should be meaningful to the student, lead to the desired behavioral or learning objectives, and provide appropriate reinforcement. Aids that involve learning a physical skill should guide students toward mastery of the skill or task specified in the lesson objective.
Instructional aids have no value in the learning process if they cannot be heard or seen. Recordings of sounds and speeches should be tested for correct volume and quality in the actual environment in which they will be used. Visual aids must be visible to the entire class. All lettering and illustrations must be large enough to be seen easily by the students farthest from the aids.
Colors, when used, should provide clear contrast and easily be visible. The usefulness of aids can be improved by proper sequencing to build on previous learning. Frequently, good organization and natural patterns of logic dictate the sequence. However, use of standardized materials, including a syllabus, is recommended.
Sequencing also can be enhanced simply by using overlays on transparencies, stripping techniques on charts and chalk or marker boards, and by imaginative use of magnetic boards. Sequencing can be emphasized and made clearer by the use of contrasting colors. The effectiveness of aids and the ease of their preparation can be increased by initially planning them in rough draft form. Revisions and alterations are easier to make at that time than after their completion. The rough draft should be carefully checked for technical accuracy, proper terminology, grammar, spelling, basic balance, clarity, and simplicity. Instructional aids should also be reviewed to determine whether their use is feasible in the training environment and whether they are appropriate for the students.
In practice, the choice of instructional aids depends on several factors. Availability, feasibility, or cost may impose realistic limitations. The number of students in a class and the existing facilities are other considerations. In some school situations, the designers of the curriculum determine the use of instructional aids. In this case, the science teacher may have little control over their use. On the other hand, an independent science teacher may have considerable latitude, but limited resources.
TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS
Some of the most common and economical aids are chalk or marker boards, and supplemental print materials, including charts, diagrams, and graphs. Other aids, which usually are more expensive, are projected materials, video, computer-based programs, and models, mock-ups, or cut-aways.
CHALK OR MARKER BOARD
The chalk or marker board is one of the most widely used tools for science teachers. Its versatility and effectiveness provide several advantages for most types of instruction. First, the material presented can be erased, allowing the surface to be used again and again; and second, the boards serve as an excellent medium for joint student-science teacher activity in the classroom. The following practices are fundamental in the use of the chalk or marker board:
• Keep the chalk or marker board clean.
• Erase all irrelevant material.
• Keep chalk, markers, erasers, cleaning cloths, rulers, and related items readily available to avoid interruption of the presentation.
• Organize and practice the chalk or marker board presentation in advance.
• Write or draw large enough for everyone in the group to see.
• Leave a margin around the material and sufficient space between lines of copy so the board is not overcrowded.
• Present material simply and briefly.
• Make only one point at a time. A complete outline tends to distract students and makes a logical presentation difficult. If writing has been previously prepared, it should be covered and then revealed one step at a time.
• If necessary, use the ruler, compass, or other devices in making drawings.
• Use colored chalk or marker for emphasis.
• Underline statements for emphasis.
• Use the upper part of the board. In many classrooms, students may not be able to see the lower half.
• Stand to one side of the board to avoid hiding the essential information.
• Use a pointer when appropriate.
• Adjust lighting as necessary to remove glare.
SUPPLEMENTAL PRINT MATERIAL
Print media, including photographs, reproductions of pictures, drawings, murals, cartoons, and other print materials are valuable supplemental aids. Charts, diagrams, and graphs are also in this category.
Many of these items are suitable for long-term use on bulletin boards and in briefing areas.
Pictures, drawings, and photographs are especially effective because they provide common visual imagery for both science teachers and students. In addition, they also provide realistic details necessary for visual recognition of important subject material. In many cases, this type of supplemental training media may be reproduced in a format for projection on a screen or other clear surface.
Charts, diagrams, and graphs include any printed material which gives information in tabular form. There are several types of charts which can be used in presenting data such as the pie chart, the flow chart, and the organizational chart, among others.
The type of chart selected for use depends largely on the type of information the science teacher wants to convey.
An important factor is the chart’s format. Since charts may consist of a series of single sheets or be tied together in a flip-chart format with several pages, the location and handling of them should be planned in advance.
A graph is a symbolic drawing which shows relationships or makes comparisons. The most common types are the line graph and the bar graph. The selection of a graph for use in any given situation depends upon the type of information the science teacher wants to convey.
Charts, diagrams, and graphs can be used effectively to show relationships, chronological changes, distributions, components, and flow. They are easy to construct and can be produced in the same manner as pictures. In addition, they can be drawn on a chalk or marker board and can be duplicated. Care must be taken to display only a small amount of material and to make the material as simple but meaningful as possible.
Numerous other useful print items may be considered as supplemental training aids. Some of these include study guides, exercise books, course outlines, and syllabi. Well-designed course outlines are especially useful to students because they list the key points and help students organize note taking during a lecture.
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