Thursday, July 17, 2008

DOMAINS OF LEARNING

Besides the four basic levels of learning, educational psychologists have developed several additional levels.

These classifications consider what is to be learned. Is it knowledge only, a change in attitude, a physical skill, or a combination of knowledge and skill? One of the more useful categorizations of learning objectives includes three domains: cognitive domain (knowledge), affective domain (attitudes, beliefs, and values), and psychomotor domain (physical skills). Each of the domains has a hierarchy of educational objectives.

The listing of the hierarchy of objectives is often called taxonomy. Taxonomy of educational objectives is a systematic classification scheme for sorting learning outcomes into the three broad categories (cognitive, affective, and psychomotor) and ranking the desired outcomes in a developmental hierarchy from least complex to most complex.

COGNITIVE DOMAIN

The cognitive domain, described by Dr. Benjamin Bloom, is one of the best known educational domains.

It contains additional levels of knowledge and understanding and is commonly referred to as Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives.

E

ducational objectives in the cognitive domain refer to knowledge which

Figure 1-4. Dr. Bloom’s hierarchical taxonomy for the cognitive domain (knowledge) includes six educational objective levels.

might be gained as the result of attending a ground school, reading about aircraft systems, listening to a preflight briefing, reviewing meteorological reports, or taking part in computer-based training. The highest educational objective level in this domain may also be illustrated by learning to correctly evaluate a flight maneuver, repair an airplane engine, or review a training syllabus for depth and completeness of training.

AFFECTIVE DOMAIN

The affective domain may be the least understood, and in many ways, the most important of the learning domains. A similar system for specifying attitudinal objectives has been developed by D.R. Krathwohl.

Like the Bloom tax

onomy, Krathwohl’s hierarchy attempts to arrange these objectives in an order of difficulty.

Since the affective domain is concerned with a student’s attitudes, personal beliefs, and values, measuring educational objectives in this domain is not easy.

For example, how is a positive attitude toward safety evaluated? Observable safety-related behavior indicates a positive attitude, but this is not like a simple pass/fail test that can be

Figure 1-5. D. R. Krathwohl’s hierarchical taxonomy for the affective domain (attitudes, beliefs, and values) contains five educational objective levels.

used to e

Figure 1-5. D. R. Krathwohl’s hierarchical taxonomy for the affective domain (attitudes, beliefs, and values) contains five educational objective levels.

valuate cognitive educational objective levels. Although a number of techniques are available for evaluation of achievement in the affective domain, most rely on indirect inferences.

Figure 1-5. D. R. Krathwohl’s hierarchical taxonomy for the affective domain (attitudes, beliefs, and values) contains five educational objective levels.


PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN

There are several taxonomies which deal with the psychomotor domain (physical skills), but none are as popularly recognized as the Bloom and Krathwohl taxonomies. However, the taxonomy developed by E.J.

S

impson also is generally acceptable. Psychomotor or physical skills always have been important in science. Typical activities involving these skills include learning to fly a precision instrument approach procedure, programming a GPS receiver, or using sophisticated maintenance equipment. As physical tasks and equipment become more complex, the requirement for integration of cognitive and physical skills increases.

Figure1. E.J. Simpson’s hierarchical taxonomy for the psychomotor domain (physical skills) consists of seven educational objective levels..

Instructional Material (A.V Aids)

Instructional aids should not be confused with training media. Educators generally describe training media as any physical means that communicates an instructional message to students. For example, the science teacher’s voice, printed text, video cassettes, interactive computer programs, part-task trainers, flight training devices or flight simulators, and numerous other types of training devices are considered training media.

Instructional aids, on the other hand, are devices that assist an science teacher in the teaching-learning process.

Instructional aids are not self-supporting; they are supplementary training devices. The key factor is that instructional aids support, supplement, or reinforce.

In general, the coverage of instructional aids in the first part of this chapter applies to a classroom setting with one science teacher and several students. The discussion about types of instructional aids begins with the most basic aids and progresses to the more complex and expensive aids. The last segment is about new training technologies which may apply to a typical classroom environment, as well as other training environments.

While science teachers may become involved in the selection and preparation of instructional aids, usually they are already in place. Science teachers simply need to learn how to effectively use them .

REASONS FOR USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS

In addition to helping students remember important information, instructional aids have other advantages.

When properly used, they help gain and hold the attention of students. Audio or visual aids can be very useful in supporting a topic, and the combination of both audio and visual stimuli is particularly effective since the two most important senses are involved. Science teachers should keep in mind that they often are salesmen of ideas, and many of the best sales techniques that attract the attention of potential clients are well worth considering. One caution—the instructional aid should keep student attention on the subject; it should not be a distracting gimmick.

Clearly, a major goal of all instruction is for the student to be able to retain as much knowledge of the subject as possible, especially the key points. Numerous studies have attempted to determine how well instructional aids serve this purpose. Indications from the studies vary greatly—from modest results, which show a 10 to

15 percent increase in retention, to more optimistic results in which retention is increased by as much as 80 percent.

Good instructional aids also can help solve certain language barrier problems. Consider the continued expansion of technical terminology in everyday usage. This, coupled with culturally diverse backgrounds of today’s students, makes it necessary for science teachers to be precise in their choice of terminology. Words or terms used in an instructional aid should be carefully selected to convey the same meaning for the student as they do for the science teacher. They should provide an accurate visual image and make learning easier for the student.

Another use for instructional aids is to clarify the relationships between material objects and concepts. When relationships are presented visually, they often are much easier to understand. For example, the subsystems within a physical unit are relatively easy to relate to each other through the use of schematics or diagrams. Symbols, graphs, and diagrams can also show relationships of location, size, time, frequency, and value. By symbolizing the factors involved, it is even possible to visualize abstract relationships.

Science teachers are frequently asked to teach more and more in a smaller time frame. Instructional aids can help them do this. For example, instead of using many words to describe a sound, object, or function, the science teacher plays a recording of the sound, shows a picture of the object, or presents a diagram of the function. Consequently, the student learns faster and more accurately, and the science teacher saves time in the process.

Use of Instructional Aids

Aids should be simple and compatible with the learning outcomes to be achieved. Obviously, an explanation of elaborate equipment may require detailed schematics or mockups, but less complex equipment may lend itself to only basic shapes or figures. Since aids are normally used in conjunction with a verbal presentation, words on the aid should be kept to a minimum.

In many cases, visual symbols and slogans can replace extended use of verbiage. The science teacher should

Instructional aids should appeal to the student and be based on sound principles of instructional design.

When practical, they should encourage student participation. They also should be meaningful to the student, lead to the desired behavioral or learning objectives, and provide appropriate reinforcement. Aids that involve learning a physical skill should guide students toward mastery of the skill or task specified in the lesson objective.

Instructional aids have no value in the learning process if they cannot be heard or seen. Recordings of sounds and speeches should be tested for correct volume and quality in the actual environment in which they will be used. Visual aids must be visible to the entire class. All lettering and illustrations must be large enough to be seen easily by the students farthest from the aids.

Colors, when used, should provide clear contrast and easily be visible. The usefulness of aids can be improved by proper sequencing to build on previous learning. Frequently, good organization and natural patterns of logic dictate the sequence. However, use of standardized materials, including a syllabus, is recommended.

Sequencing also can be enhanced simply by using overlays on transparencies, stripping techniques on charts and chalk or marker boards, and by imaginative use of magnetic boards. Sequencing can be emphasized and made clearer by the use of contrasting colors. The effectiveness of aids and the ease of their preparation can be increased by initially planning them in rough draft form. Revisions and alterations are easier to make at that time than after their completion. The rough draft should be carefully checked for technical accuracy, proper terminology, grammar, spelling, basic balance, clarity, and simplicity. Instructional aids should also be reviewed to determine whether their use is feasible in the training environment and whether they are appropriate for the students.

In practice, the choice of instructional aids depends on several factors. Availability, feasibility, or cost may impose realistic limitations. The number of students in a class and the existing facilities are other considerations. In some school situations, the designers of the curriculum determine the use of instructional aids. In this case, the science teacher may have little control over their use. On the other hand, an independent science teacher may have considerable latitude, but limited resources.

TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS

Some of the most common and economical aids are chalk or marker boards, and supplemental print materials, including charts, diagrams, and graphs. Other aids, which usually are more expensive, are projected materials, video, computer-based programs, and models, mock-ups, or cut-aways.

CHALK OR MARKER BOARD

The chalk or marker board is one of the most widely used tools for science teachers. Its versatility and effectiveness provide several advantages for most types of instruction. First, the material presented can be erased, allowing the surface to be used again and again; and second, the boards serve as an excellent medium for joint student-science teacher activity in the classroom. The following practices are fundamental in the use of the chalk or marker board:

Keep the chalk or marker board clean.

Erase all irrelevant material.

Keep chalk, markers, erasers, cleaning cloths, rulers, and related items readily available to avoid interruption of the presentation.

Organize and practice the chalk or marker board presentation in advance.

Write or draw large enough for everyone in the group to see.

Leave a margin around the material and sufficient space between lines of copy so the board is not overcrowded.

Present material simply and briefly.

Make only one point at a time. A complete outline tends to distract students and makes a logical presentation difficult. If writing has been previously prepared, it should be covered and then revealed one step at a time.

If necessary, use the ruler, compass, or other devices in making drawings.

Use colored chalk or marker for emphasis.

Underline statements for emphasis.

Use the upper part of the board. In many classrooms, students may not be able to see the lower half.

Stand to one side of the board to avoid hiding the essential information.

Use a pointer when appropriate.

Adjust lighting as necessary to remove glare.

SUPPLEMENTAL PRINT MATERIAL

Print media, including photographs, reproductions of pictures, drawings, murals, cartoons, and other print materials are valuable supplemental aids. Charts, diagrams, and graphs are also in this category.

Many of these items are suitable for long-term use on bulletin boards and in briefing areas.

Pictures, drawings, and photographs are especially effective because they provide common visual imagery for both science teachers and students. In addition, they also provide realistic details necessary for visual recognition of important subject material. In many cases, this type of supplemental training media may be reproduced in a format for projection on a screen or other clear surface.

Charts, diagrams, and graphs include any printed material which gives information in tabular form. There are several types of charts which can be used in presenting data such as the pie chart, the flow chart, and the organizational chart, among others.

The type of chart selected for use depends largely on the type of information the science teacher wants to convey.

An important factor is the chart’s format. Since charts may consist of a series of single sheets or be tied together in a flip-chart format with several pages, the location and handling of them should be planned in advance.

A graph is a symbolic drawing which shows relationships or makes comparisons. The most common types are the line graph and the bar graph. The selection of a graph for use in any given situation depends upon the type of information the science teacher wants to convey.

Charts, diagrams, and graphs can be used effectively to show relationships, chronological changes, distributions, components, and flow. They are easy to construct and can be produced in the same manner as pictures. In addition, they can be drawn on a chalk or marker board and can be duplicated. Care must be taken to display only a small amount of material and to make the material as simple but meaningful as possible.

Numerous other useful print items may be considered as supplemental training aids. Some of these include study guides, exercise books, course outlines, and syllabi. Well-designed course outlines are especially useful to students because they list the key points and help students organize note taking during a lecture.

Self Study Assignment 1 ICT

WHAT ARE ICTs AND WHAT TYPES OF ICTs ARE COMMONLY USED IN EDUCATION?

ICTs stand for information and communication technologies and are defined, for the purposes of this primer, as a “diverse set of technological tools and resources used to communicate, and to create, disseminate, store, and manage information.” These technologies include computers, the Internet, broadcasting technologies (radio and television), and telephony.

In recent years there has been a groundswell of interest in how computers and the Internet can best be harnessed to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of education at all levels and in both formal and non-formal settings. But ICTs are more than just these technologies; older technologies such as the telephone, radio and television, although now given less attention, have a longer and richer history as instructional tools. For instance, radio and television have for over forty years been used for open and distance learning, although print remains the cheapest,most accessible and therefore most dominant delivery mechanism in both developed and developing countries.6 The use of computers and the Internet is still in its infancy in developing countries, if these are used at all, due to limited infrastructure and the attendant high costs of access.

Allama Iqbal Open University (AIOU) combines the use of print, recorded audio and video, broadcast radio and television as well as online education for promoting distance based education and non-formal education in Pakistan. AIOU has also started online courses and is also providing access to online resources. Similarly, Virtual University (VU) in Pakistan is offering distance education through internet and television technologies. Video recording of lectures of different courses of VU are also available in CDs from different recommended educational centers and their other educational resources are also available online to students like E-library and course lectures. The Open University of the United Kingdom (UKOU), established in 1969 as the first educational institution in the world wholly dedicated to open and distance learning, still relies heavily on print-based materials supplemented by radio, television and, in recent years, online programming.

WHAT IS E-LEARNING?

Although most commonly associated with higher education and corporate training, e-learning encompasses learning at all levels, both formal and non-formal, that uses an information network—the Internet, an intranet (LAN) or extranet (WAN)—whether wholly or in part, for course delivery, interaction and/or facilitation. Others prefer the term online learning. Web-based learning is a subset of e-learning and refers to learning using an Internet browser (such as Netscape or Internet Explorer).

WHAT IS BLENDED LEARNING?

Another term that is gaining currency is blended learning. This refers to learning models that combine traditional classroom practice with e-learning solutions. For example, students in a traditional class can be assigned both print-based and online materials, have online mentoring sessions with their teacher through chat, and are subscribed to a class email list. Or a Web-based training course can be enhanced by periodic face-to-face instruction. “Blending” was prompted by the recognition that not all learning is best achieved in an electronically-mediated environment, particularly one that dispenses with a live instructor altogether. Instead, consideration must be given to the subject matter, the learning objectives and outcomes, the characteristics of the learners, and the learning context in order to arrive at the optimum mix of instructional and delivery methods.

WHAT IS OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING?

Open and distance learning is defined by the Commonwealth of Learning as “a way of providing learning opportunities that is characterized by the separation of teacher and learner in time or place, or both time and place; learning that is certified in some way by an institution or agency; the use of a variety of media, including print and electronic; two-way communications that allow learners and tutors to interact; the possibility of occasional face-to-face meetings; and a specialized division of labour in the production and delivery of courses.”

WHAT IS MEANT BY A LEARNER-CENTERED ENVIRONMENT?

The National Research Council of the U.S. defines learner-centered environments as those that “pay careful attention to the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and beliefs that learners bring with them to the classroom.” The impetus for learner-centredness derives from a theory of learning called constructivism, which views learning as a process in which individuals “construct” meaning based on prior knowledge and experience. Experience enables individuals to build mental models or schemas, which in turn provide meaning and organization to subsequent experience. Thus knowledge is not “out there”, independent of the learner and which the learner passively receives; rather, knowledge is created through an active process in which the learner transforms information, constructs hypothesis, and makes decisions using his/her mental models. A form of constructivism called social constructivism also emphasizes the role of the teacher, parents, peers and other community members in helping learners to master concepts that they would not be able to understand on their own. For social constructivists, learning must be active, contextual and social. It is best done in a group setting with the teacher as facilitator or guide.

ICTs IN EDUCATION

For developing countries ICTs have the potential for increasing access to and improving the relevance and quality of education. It thus represents a potentially equalizing strategy for developing countries. [ICTs] greatly facilitate the acquisition and absorption of knowledge, offering developing countries unprecedented opportunities to enhance educational systems, improve policy formulation and execution, and widen the range of opportunities for business and the poor. One of the greatest hardships endured by the poor, and by many others who live in the poorest countries, is their sense of isolation. The new communications technologies promise to reduce that sense of isolation, and to open access to knowledge in ways unimaginable not long ago.

However, the reality of the Digital Divide—the gap between those who have access to and control of technology and those who do not—means that the introduction and integration of ICTs at different levels and in various types of education will be a most challenging undertaking. Failure to meet the challenge would mean a further widening of the knowledge gap and the deepening of existing economic and social inequalities.

HOW CAN ICTS HELP EXPAND ACCESS TO EDUCATION?

ICTs are a potentially powerful tool for extending educational opportunities, both formal and non-formal, to previously underserved constituencies—scattered and rural populations, groups traditionally excluded from education due to cultural or social reasons such as ethnic minorities, girls and women, persons with disabilities, and the elderly, as well as all others who for reasons of cost or because of time constraints are unable to enroll on campus.

Anytime, anywhere. One defining feature of ICTs is their ability to transcend time and space.

ICTs make possible asynchronous learning, or learning characterized by a time lag between the delivery of instruction and its reception by learners. Online course materials, for example, may be accessed 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. ICT-based educational delivery (e.g., educational programming broadcast over radio or television) also dispenses with the need for all learners and the instructor to be in one physical location. Additionally, certain types of ICTs, such as teleconferencing technologies, enable instruction to be received simultaneously by multiple, geographically dispersed learners (i.e., synchronous learning).

Access to remote learning resources. Teachers and learners no longer have to rely solely on printed books and other materials in physical media housed in libraries (and available in limited quantities) for their educational needs. With the Internet and the World Wide Web, a wealth of learning materials in almost every subject and in a variety of media can now be accessed from anywhere at anytime of the day and by an unlimited number of people. This is particularly significant for many schools in developing countries, and even some in developed countries, that have limited and outdated library resources. ICTs also facilitate access to resource persons— mentors, experts, researchers, professionals, business leaders, and peers—all over the world.

How does the use of ICTs help prepare individuals for the workplace?

One of the most commonly cited reasons for using ICTs in the classroom has been to better prepare the current generation of students for a workplace where ICTs, particularly computers, the Internet and related technologies, are becoming more and more ubiquitous. Technological literacy, or the ability to use ICTs effectively and efficiently, is thus seen as representing a competitive edge in an increasingly globalizing job market. Technological literacy, however, is not the only skill well-paying jobs in the new global economy will require. EnGauge of the North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (U.S.) has identified what it calls “21st Century Skills,” which includes digital age literacy (consisting of functional literacy, visual literacy, scientific literacy, technological literacy, information literacy, cultural literacy, and global awareness), inventive thinking, higher-order thinking and sound reasoning, effective communication, and high productivity. (See Table 1 for a brief explanation of each skill.)

Table 1. Skills Needed in the Workplace of the Future

Functional literacy

Ability to decipher meaning and express ideas in a range of media; this includes the use of images, graphics, video, charts and graphs or visual literacy

Scientific literacy

Understanding of both the theoretical and applied aspects of science and mathematics

Technological literacy

Competence in the use of information and communication technologies


Information literacy

Ability to find, evaluate and make appropriate use of information, including via the use of ICTs

Cultural literacy

Appreciation of the diversity of cultures

Global awareness

Understanding of how nations, corporations, and communities all over the world are interrelated



Inventive Thinking

Adaptability

Ability to adapt and manage in a complex, interdependent world

Curiosity

Desire to know

Creativity

Ability to use imagination to create new things

Risk-taking

Ability to take risks



Higher-Order Thinking Creative problem-solving and logical thinking that result in soundjudgments

Effective Communication

Teaming

Ability to work in a team

Collaboration and

interpersonal skills

Ability to interact smoothly and work effectively with others

Personal and social responsibility

Be accountable for the way they use ICTs and to learn to use ICTs for the public good

Interactive communication

Competence in conveying, transmitting, accessing and understanding information

High Productivity


Ability to prioritize, plan, and manage programs and projects to achieve the desired

Results Ability to apply what they learn in the classroom to real-life contexts to create relevant, high-quality products

Source: Adapted from EnGauge. North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. Available Online at

http://www.ncrel.org/engauge/skills/21skills.htm. Accessed 31 May 2002.

The potential of ICTs to promote the acquisition of these skills is tied to its use as a tool for raising educational quality, including promoting the shift to a learner-centered environment.

How can the use of ICTs help improve the quality of education?

Improving the quality of education and training is a critical issue, particularly at a time of educational expansion. ICTs can enhance the quality of education in several ways: by increasing learner motivation and engagement, by facilitating the acquisition of basic skills, and by enhancing teacher training. ICTs are also transformational tools which, when used appropriately, can promote the shift to a learner-centered environment.

Motivating to learn. ICTs such as videos, television and multimedia computer software that combine text, sound, and colorful, moving images can be used to provide challenging and authentic content that will engage the student in the learning process. Interactive radio likewise makes use of sound effects, songs, dramatizations, comic skits, and other performance conventions to compel the students to listen and become involved in the lessons being delivered. More so than any other type of ICT, networked computers with Internet connectivity can increase learner motivation as it combines the media richness and interactivity of other ICTs with the opportunity to connect with real people and to participate in real world events.

Facilitating the acquisition of basic skills. The transmission of basic skills and concepts that are the foundation of higher order thinking skills and creativity can be facilitated by ICTs through drill and practice. Educational television programs such as Sesame Street use repetition and reinforcement to teach the alphabet, numbers, colors, shapes and other basic concepts. Most of the early uses of computers were for computer-based learning (also called computer-assisted instruction) that focused on mastery of skills and content through repetition and reinforcement. (See section below on Computer- Based Learning.)

Enhancing teacher training. ICTs have also been used to improve access to and the quality of teacher training. For example, institutions like the Cyber Teacher Training Center (CTTC) in South Korea are taking advantage of the Internet to provide better teacher professional development opportunities to inservice teachers. The government-funded CTTC, established in 1997, offers self-directed, self-paced Web-based courses for primary and secondary school teachers. Courses include “Computers in the Information Society,”“Education Reform,” and “Future Society and Education.” Online tutorials are also offered, with some courses requiring occasional face-to-face meetings.15 In China, large-scale radio and television-based teacher education has for many years been conducted by the China Central Radio and TV University,16 the Shanghai Radio and TV University and many other RTVUs in the country.

At Indira Gandhi National Open University, satellite-based one-way video- and two-way audio-conferencing was held in 1996, supplemented by print-materials and recorded video, to train 910 primary school teachers and facilitators from 20 district training institutes in Karnataka State. The teachers interacted with remote lecturers by telephone and fax.

HOW CAN ICTS HELP TRANSFORM THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT INTO ONE THAT IS LEARNER-CENTERED?

Research has shown that the appropriate use of ICTs can catalyze the paradigmatic shift in both content and pedagogy that is at the heart of education reform in the 21st century.19 If designed and implemented properly, ICT-supported education can promote the acquisition of the knowledge and skills that will empower students for lifelong learning.

When used appropriately, ICTs—especially computers and Internet technologies— enable new ways of teaching and learning rather than simply allow teachers and students to do what they have done before in a better way. These new ways of teaching and learning are underpinned by constructivist theories of learning and constitute a shift from a teacher-centered pedagogy—in its worst form characterized by memorization and rote learning—to one that is learner-centered. (See Table 2 for a comparison of a traditional pedagogy and an emerging pedagogy enabled by ICTs.)

Active learning. ICT-enhanced learning mobilizes tools for examination, calculation and analysis of information, thus providing a platform for student inquiry, analysis and construction of new information. Learners therefore learn as they do and, whenever appropriate, work on real-life problems in-depth, making learning less abstract and more relevant to the learner’s life situation. In this way, and in contrast to memorization-based or rote learning, ICT-enhanced learning promotes increased learner engagement. ICT-enhanced learning is also “just-in-time” learning in .which learners can choose what to learn when they need to learn it.

Collaborative learning. ICT-supported learning encourages interaction and cooperation among students, teachers, and experts regardless of where they are. Apart from modeling real-world interactions, ICT-supported learning provides learners the opportunity to work with people from different cultures, thereby helping to enhance learners’ teaming and communicative skills as well as their global awareness. It models learning done throughout the learner’s lifetime by expanding the learning space to include not just peers but also mentors and experts from different fields.

Table 2. Overview of Pedagogy in the Industrial versus the Information Society

Aspect

Less (‘traditional pedagogy’)

More (‘emerging pedagogy’ for the information society)

Active

Activities prescribed by teacher

Whole class instruction

Little variation in activities

Pace determined by the programme

Activities determined by learners

Small groups

Many different activities

Pace determined by learners


Collaborative

Individual

Homogenous groups

Everyone for him/herself


Working in teams

Heterogeneous groups

Supporting each other

Creative

Reproductive learning

Apply known solutions to problems



Productive learning

Find new solutions to problems



Integrative


No link between theory and practice

Separate subjects

Discipline-based

Individual teachers


Integrating theory and practice

Relations between subjects

Thematic

Teams of teachers


Evaluative

Teacher-directed

Summative


Student-directed

Diagnostic

Source: Thijs, A., et al. Learning Through the Web Available Online http://www.decidenet.nl/Publications/

Web_Based_Learning.pdf Accessed 31 May 2002.

Creative Learning. ICT-supported learning promotes the manipulation of existing information and the creation of real-world products rather than the regurgitation of received information.

Integrative learning. ICT-enhanced learning promotes a thematic, integrative approach to teaching and learning.This approach eliminates the artificial separation between the different disciplines and between theory and practice that characterizes the traditional classroom approach.

Evaluative learning. ICT-enhanced learning is student-directed and diagnostic. Unlike static, text- or print-based educational technologies, ICT-enhanced learning recognizes that there are many different learning pathways and many different articulations of knowledge. ICTs allow learners to explore and discover rather than merely listen and remember.